Simon Peter

Simon Peter was one of the twelve Apostles of Jesus. He got the name "Peter" when Jesus said he'd build his church on this rock. ("Peter" comes from the Greek for "rock.") Paul sometimes called him "Cephas," which means the same thing in Aramaic.Catholics believe that Peter was the first Pope,thereby lending legitimacy to the modern day papacy.

Peter, along with James and John, was among the "inner circle" of Jesus' disciples (ex. Mark 5.12), and therefore witnessed some events that were not seen by the other apostles, including the Transfiguration.

He is the central figure in much of the first twelve chapters of the Acts of the Apostles. Two epistles bear his name and some scholars argue that he was the source material that allowed Mark to write his  Gospel. Many apocryphal books deal with his preaching and deeds, and church tradition has a well developed story of his martyrdom.

But, amidst all of this the question must be raised, who was Peter? This man that is held in such high regard by some and who has captured the imagination of no few, who is he? There are two basic sources that a person may look to for information in this regard. First, the Bible itself has a wealth of information regarding Peter. Second, church history, tradition, and even apocryphal writings may shed some amount of light on the life of Peter, most notably his later life and ministry.

Early Life
To begin one must examine Peter's early life before the fateful day when he was introduced to the Messiah. It is true that the Bible is somewhat silent on the issue of Peter's early life. Indeed the Gospels mention very little of Jesus' own early life, and even less of the lives of his disciples. No specific date is available for the birth of Peter. One may assume that since he was running a fishing business when he met Jesus that he was "in his early thirties, born, like Jesus, some time before the turn of the century," (Thiede). Regardless of when he was born his original name was Simon or Symeon (Cullmann). If his name was Symeon which is "used of Peter...only in Acts 15.14 and II Peter 1.1" (Cullman), then it is clear that his parents named him with a Hebrew name. It has been supposed the Simon was merely a transliteration of the Hebrew name Symeon, however, a strong case can be made for Simon being Hellenistic because it was already attested to in Aristophanes' plays (Cullman). According to the Gospel of John, Peter was from the city of Bethsaida (1.44). He was also the son of a certain Jonah, or perhaps John (Cullmann). Bethsaida was raised to the status of city by Phillip the Tetrarch, he was a Hellenizer who furthered Graeco-Roman culture throughout his area of influence (Thiede). It may then have been quite likely that Peter was acquainted well with Hellenistic culture and the Greek language. It may also be safely assumed that Peter had some knowledge of both Aramaic and Hebrew, as well. It is also likely that he had received the standard education that any Jewish male might have in the first century which consisted of education in reading, writing and, of course, memorization of the Torah (Thiede). It may also be possible that Peter had some connection to the Zealots (Cullmann). The Johannine account gives some reason to believe that before his introduction to Jesus he may have been among the disciples of John the Baptist (Cullmann, John 1.35-42). Finally it must also be mentioned that several passages explain that Peter had a wife (Mark 1.30; 1 Cor. 9.5). Synthesizing the accounts of Jesus' first meeting with Peter is the first task in discussing his life as a disciple of Jesus.. Mark 1.16 and Matthew 4.18, feature Peter and Andrew as the first of Jesus' disciples whom he calls "on the shores of the Sea of Galilee," (Thiede). John 1.35-42 also seems to indicate that Peter was among the first disciples, however not everyone agrees that Peter was among the disciples of John (Thiede 22). Regardless, it would appear that Peter was one of the first, if not the first, of the disciples who were called by Jesus. Even Encyclopedia Britannica agrees with this, saying that Peter was called by Jesus "at the beginning of his ministry." If the Johannine account is favored, Jesus bestows the title "Cephas," (meaning "Rock", Gk. Petros) on Peter at their first meeting with the words, "So you are Simon the son of John? You shall be called Cephas," (John 1.42b). On the other hand the first occurrence of the name in the Gospel of Mark, which may have been compiled from source material given to John Mark by Peter himself, is in a list of the disciples (Mark 3.16). The account recorded in the Gospel of Matthew has Jesus bestowing the name on Peter after the latter confesses, "You are the Christ, the son of the living God," (Matthew 16.16-17). It is possible to harmonize these variations if one is "determined to do so," (Cullmann). However, the wiser use of ones time may be to rest on one of two conclusions. The first possible conclusion is that Jesus spoke about the giving of the name at various times throughout his ministry and that the writers are simply including a sampling of those different times. The second possible conclusion is that the exact memory of the moment "Jesus gave Peter the title had been lost," (Cullmann).

The Apostle Peter's Life during Jesus' Ministry
Simon Peter was a devoted and loyal follower of the Lord. He remained faithful to Christ all throughout His earthly ministry, after His Ascension, and up to the time of his martyrdom. Although Peter had human weaknesses and made human mistakes, his steadfast love and devotion to the Lord as well as his strong faith in Him did not weaken. The Apostle faithfully carried out the preaching and healing mission which Christ had given to him and the other Apostles, and dutifully fulfilled his role as “the rock” upon which Christ had begun building His Church.

In the gospels, Simon Peter is present at every event during Christ’s earthly ministry although his name is not mentioned in all of the passages relating these events. We can easily surmise from the verses themselves, however, that Peter was present along with the other eleven, and later, with the Seventy [Seventy-Two in some readings]. There are also rmarkable events during Christ’s ministry where only Peter, John and James are present with the Lord.

Occasions Where the Apostle Peter is Noted as Being Present

 * At Christ's Calling of the Twelve Apostles 

According to the book of Matthew, the Lord Jesus Christ began His teaching ministry soon after having been baptized by John the Baptist in the Jordan River. Matthew informs us that Jesus His [and His mother Mary’s] hometown of Nazareth and went to stay in Capernaum--the hometown of Peter and Andrew. It was from this fishing village of Capernaum that the Lord called Peter [and Andrew] to be His disciple. The Bible tells us that Capernaum was a place by lake, in the area of Zebulun and Naphtali. This area had become so spiritually [and perhaps even morally] darkened in its way of life that scripture refers to it as "the Galilee of the Gentiles”. These two regions are prophesied in the Bible book of Isaiah as the places in darkness whereupon the light would dawn.. One source notes that the “woe” spoken of by Christ Jesus against the city of Capernaum [ka-per'-na-um] has been fulfilled to the uttermost (Matthew 11:23 Luke 10:15). They report that this city had so completely perished that “the very site is a matter of dispute today”. When Jesus made His departure from His hometown of Nazareth, He stayed in Capernaum (Matthew 4:13) and made it became the center of His preaching work and the working of miracles for the greater of His public ministry. (Matthew 11:23, Mark 1:34) In this city, Christ healed the centurion's son (Matthew 8:5, etc.), the nobleman's son (John 4:46), Simon Peter's mother-in-law (Mark 1:31, etc.), and the paralytic (Matthew 9:1, etc.). Here he cast out the unclean spirit (Mark 1:23, etc.); and perhaps here was where He raised Jairus' daughter to life (Mark 5:22, etc.). “In Capernaum the little child was used to teach the disciples humility, while in the synagogue Jesus delivered His ever-memorable discourse on the bread of life (John 6).” The site refers to the accounts given to us in Gospels that show Capernaum to be a city of considerable importance. [Also see Matthew 11:23 Luke 10:15]. The inhabitants of the city were very prideful due to prosperity. A few sites are believed to be the biblical city of Capernaum. One is Tell Chum, a ruined site on the lake shore, nearly 2 1/2 miles west of the mouth of the Jordan. Another is Khan Minyeh, fully 2 1/2 miles farther West, at the Northeast corner of the plain of Genessaret. Dr. Tristram suggested `Ain El-Madowwerah, a large spring enclosed by a circular wall, on the western edge of the plain. But it stands about a mile from the sea; there are no ruins to indicate that any considerable village ever stood here; and the water is available for only a small part of the plain.  We have to marvel at the fact that this is the very region where Jesus first comes to call his disciples.

The verse in which we find this account is Matthew 4:12-13, 17-20. It reads, “12 When Jesus heard that John had been put in prison, he returned to [Galilee]. 13 Leaving Nazareth, he went and lived in Capernaum, which was by the lake in the area of Zebulun and Naphtali. 17 From that time on Jesus began to preach, "Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is near.” 18 As Jesus was walking beside the Sea of Galilee, he saw two brothers, Simon called Peter and his brother Andrew. They were casting a net into the lake, for they were fishermen. 19 "Come, follow me," Jesus said, "and I will make you fishers of men." 20 At once they left their nets and followed him.


 * When Jesus Walked on Water

Perhaps the most endearing event in the Gospel is the time when the Apostle Peter made the attempt to walk across the lake in order to meet up with the Lord. His willingness to take such a great risk in order to please Jesus was a clear manifestation of his great love and adoration for Him, a deep and overwhelming love that would drive him to try to do what no one else would dare. Even at this early stage of his calling, Peter was willing to risk his life, if it meant pleasing God.

We read of this account at Matthew 14:22-26 where it says, “22 Immediately Jesus made the disciples get into the boat and go on ahead of him to the other side, while he dismissed the crowd. 23 After he had dismissed them, he went up on a mountainside by himself to pray. When evening came, he was there alone, 24 but the boat was already a considerable distance from land, buffeted by the waves because the wind was against it. 25 During the fourth watch of the night Jesus went out to them, walking on the lake. 26 When the disciples saw him walking on the lake, they were terrified. "It's a ghost," they said, and cried out in fear. 27 But Jesus immediately said to them: "Take courage! It is I. Don't be afraid." 28 "Lord, if it's you," Peter replied, "tell me to come to you on the water." 29 "Come," he said. Then Peter got down out of the boat, walked on the water and came toward Jesus. 30 But when he saw the wind, he was afraid and, beginning to sink, cried out, "Lord, save me!" 31 Immediately Jesus reached out his hand and caught him. "You of little faith," he said, "why did you doubt?" 32 And when they climbed into the boat, the wind died down. 33 Then those who were in the boat worshiped him, saying, "Truly you are the Son of God." 


 * When Asked by the Lord of His True Identity

During this private discussion whereby the Lord Jesus questioned His Apostles about His identity, Peter made the confession that earned him the title, “the rock.” His immediate response was, “You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God.” Christ instantly recognized this as knowledge coming only from His Father in Heaven. Christ then gave Simon Peter the role of leadership in the church and called him “Peter” for he was now “the rock” upon which Christ would build His church on earth.

This account can be found at Matthew 16:13-20. It states, “13 When Jesus came to the region of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, "Who do people say the Son of Man is?" 14 They replied, "Some say John the Baptist; others say Elijah; and still others, Jeremiah or one of the prophets." 15 "But what about you?" he asked. "Who do you say I am?" 16 Simon Peter answered, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God." 17 Jesus replied, "Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah, for this was not revealed to you by man, but by my Father in heaven. 18 And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. 19 I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven." 20 Then he warned his disciples not to tell anyone that he was the Christ.


 * At the Lord’s Foretelling of His Death

Peter is rebuked for wrongly but innocently saying that he would alter what must take place.

The verse at Matthew 16:1-23 reads, “ 21 From that time on Jesus began to explain to his disciples that he must go to Jerusalem and suffer many things at the hands of the elders, chief priests and teachers of the law, and that he must be killed and on the third day be raised to life. 22 Peter took him aside and began to rebuke him. "Never, Lord!" he said. "This shall never happen to you!" 23 Jesus turned and said to Peter, "Get behind me, Satan! You are a stumbling block to me; you do not have in mind the things of God, but the things of men." 


 * At the Transfiguration

Peter is present with John and James when Christ becomes transfigured on the mountain. He recognizes Moses and Elijah who are with the glorious Lord. In a trance or dream-like state, Peter offers to prepare a tent for them and Christ. The Apostles are terrified when God speaks of His love for His Son and they become greatly terrified, falling facedown to the ground.

Matthew 17:1-9 reads, “1 After six days Jesus took with him Peter, James and John the brother of James, and led them up a high mountain by themselves. 2 There he was transfigured before them. His face shone like the sun, and his clothes became as white as the light. 3 Just then there appeared before them Moses and Elijah, talking with Jesus. 4 Peter said to Jesus, "Lord, it is good for us to be here. If you wish, I will put up three shelters—one for you, one for Moses and one for Elijah." 5 While he was still speaking, a bright cloud enveloped them, and a voice from the cloud said, "This is my Son, whom I love; with him I am well pleased. Listen to him!" 6 When the disciples heard this, they fell facedown to the ground, terrified. 7 But Jesus came and touched them. "Get up," he said. "Don't be afraid." 8 When they looked up, they saw no one except Jesus. 9 As they were coming down the mountain, Jesus instructed them, "Don't tell anyone what you have seen, until the Son of Man has been raised from the dead." 


 * When Payment is Made to the Tax Collector

In keping with His belief that one should pay Caesar's things to Caesar and God's things to God, Jesus has Peter pay the tax collector the payment he demanded.

This tax payment is recorded at Matthew 17:24-27 and reads,

“24After Jesus and his disciples arrived in Capernaum, the collectors of the two-drachma tax came to Peter and asked, "Doesn't your teacher pay the temple tax?" 25 "Yes, he does," he replied. When Peter came into the house, Jesus was the first to speak. "What do you think, Simon?" he asked. "From whom do the kings of the earth collect duty and taxes—from their own sons or from others?" 26" From others," Peter answered. "Then the sons are exempt," Jesus said to him. 27 "But so that we may not offend them, go to the lake and throw out your line. Take the first fish you catch; open its mouth and you will find a four-drachma coin. Take it and give it to them for my tax and yours." 


 * When Christ Predicts Peter’s Denial

This account is shown at Matthew 26:31-35 where it says,

"31 Then Jesus told them, "This very night you will all fall away on account of me, for it is written: 'I will strike the shepherd, and the sheep of the flock will be scattered.' 32 But after I have risen, I will go ahead of you into Galilee." 33 Peter replied, "Even if all fall away on account of you, I never will." 34 "I tell you the truth," Jesus answered, "this very night, before the rooster crows, you will disown me three times." 35 But Peter declared, "Even if I have to die with you, I will never disown you." And all the other disciples said the same.


 * During Jesus’ Agony in the Garden of Gethsamane

This account can be found at Matthew 26:36-46. It states,

"36 Then Jesus went with his disciples to a place called Gethsemane, and he said to them, "Sit here while I go over there and pray." 37 He took Peter and the two sons of Zebedee along with him, and he began to be sorrowful and troubled. 38 Then he said to them, "My soul is overwhelmed with sorrow to the point of death. Stay here and keep watch with me." 39 Going a little farther, he fell with his face to the ground and prayed, "My Father, if it is possible, may this cup be taken from me. Yet not as I will, but as you will." 40 Then he returned to his disciples and found them sleeping. "Could you men not keep watch with me for one hour?" he asked Peter. 41 "Watch and pray so that you will not fall into temptation. The spirit is willing, but the body is weak." 42 He went away a second time and prayed, "My Father, if it is not possible for this cup to be taken away unless I drink it, may your will be done." 43 When he came back, he again found them sleeping, because their eyes were heavy. 44 So he left them and went away once more and prayed the third time, saying the same thing. 45 Then he returned to the disciples and said to them, "Are you still sleeping and resting? Look, the hour is near, and the Son of Man is betrayed into the hands of sinners. 46 Rise, let us go! Here comes my betrayer!"


 * During Jesus’ Arrest at Gethsemane

After being betrayed by Judas Iscariot, the officers, teachers of the Law and High Priest came to the place where Jesus and His Apostles were staying and arrested Him.

You can read of this account at Matthew 26:47-55 where it says,

"47 While he was still speaking, Judas, one of the Twelve, arrived. With him was a large crowd armed with swords and clubs, sent from the chief priests and the elders of the people. 48 Now the betrayer had arranged a signal with them: "The one I kiss is the man; arrest him." 49 Going at once to Jesus, Judas said, "Greetings, Rabbi!" and kissed him. 50 Jesus replied, "Friend, do what you came for." Then the men stepped forward, seized Jesus and arrested him. 51 With that, one of Jesus' companions reached for his sword, drew it out and struck the servant of the high priest, cutting off his ear. 52 "Put your sword back in its place," Jesus said to him, "for all who draw the sword will die by the sword. 53 Do you think I cannot call on my Father, and he will at once put at my disposal more than twelve legions of angels? 54 But how then would the Scriptures be fulfilled that say it must happen in this way?" 55 At that time Jesus said to the crowd, "Am I leading a rebellion, that you have come out with swords and clubs to capture me? Every day I sat in the temple courts teaching, and you did not arrest me. 56 But this has all taken place that the writings of the prophets might be fulfilled." Then all the disciples deserted him and fled.


 * When the Lord is Led to Trial

This account is given at Matthew 26:57-58, and reads,

"57 Those who had arrested Jesus took him to Caiaphas, the high priest, where the teachers of the law and the elders had assembled. 58 But Peter followed him at a distance, right up to the courtyard of the high priest. He entered and sat down with the guards to see the outcome..


 * During Christ’s Trial at the Courtyard of the High Priest

This is the time when Saint Peter does something which brings him great sorrow and regret. Because of his overwhelming fear of the roman guards, he denies the Lord three times as was predicted by Jesus earlier that evening. This fear was completely overcome later, and we see Peter boldly standing up to all of the rulers of Jerusalem, the High Priest, the teachers of the law, and the Roman guards.

The account of this event can be read at Matthew 26:69-75. It reads,

69 Now Peter was sitting out in the courtyard, and a servant girl came to him. "You also were with Jesus of Galilee," she said. 70 But he denied it before them all. "I don't know what you're talking about," he said. 71 Then he went out to the gateway, where another girl saw him and said to the people there, "This fellow was with Jesus of Nazareth." 72 He denied it again, with an oath: "I don't know the man!" 73 After a little while, those standing there went up to Peter and said, "Surely you are one of them, for your accent gives you away." 74 Then he began to call down curses on himself and he swore to them, "I don't know the man. Immediately a rooster crowed. 75 Then Peter remembered the word Jesus had spoken: "Before the rooster crows, you will disown me three times." And he went outside and wept bitterly.

Other Times When the Apostle Peter was Present with the Lord
The Apostle Peter was present along with Christ's other Apostles whenever the Lord held private discourses with them. He was also present during all of Christ’s public teachings when he would teach lessons by means of parables, or when He would admonish the people for their sinful behavior or their inability to accept Him whom God had sent. Peter saw how Christ healed many from various diseases and delivered them from demons. The gospel accounts do not mention the names of the apostles during these times although we can gather from the text that all were present.

From Saint Peter’s speeches, we understand how much he treasured all that the Lord had said for he conveyed this teaching to the people so that they too would know the purpose of Christ’s coming and the means by which they could be saved. One of Peter’s greatest speeches was when he spoke to a crowd of listeners during Pentecost, immediately following the descent of the Holy Spirit. 

Below are a few of the many occasions when the Apostles were in the presence of our Lord but were not mentioned by name:


 * When They Were Anointed by Christ to Preach and to Heal 

The Apostle Peter, along with Christ’s eleven other Apostles, received the commission to go out and preach the message of the Kingdom of God to the lost sheep of Israel. Jesus also gave them the power [See Holy Spirit] by which they would carry out His command. They were specifically told to heal the sick, raise the dead, and cast out demons.

This account can be found at Matthew 10:5-10, and reads, “5These twelve Jesus sent out with the following instructions: "Do not go among the Gentiles or enter any town of the Samaritans. 6Go rather to the lost sheep of Israel. 7As you go, preach this message: 'The kingdom of heaven is near.' 8Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse those who have leprosy, out demons. Freely you have received, freely give. 9Do not take along any gold or silver or copper in your belts; 10take no bag for the journey, or extra tunic, or sandals or a staff; for the worker is worth his keep.


 * At Jesus' Feeding of the Five-Thousand [Matthew 14:13-21]
 * At Jesus' Feeding of Four-Thousand [Matthew 15:29-39]
 * At Jesus' Healing of the Boy Possessed by a Demon [Matthew 17:14-22]
 * At Jesus’ Healing of the Two Blind Men [Matthew 20:29-34]
 * During Christ’s Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem [Matthew 21:6-11]
 * At the Withering of the Fig Tree [Matthew 21:18-21]
 * During Jesus’ Discussion of the Seven Woes for Jerusalem [Matthew 23: 1-3]
 * During Jesus’ Discussion of the Separation of the Sheep from the Goats at His Second Coming [Matthew 25:31-46]
 * At Bethany when Jesus is Anointed by Mary [Matthew 26:6-13]
 * At The Lord's Supper [Matthew 26:17-30]

Next to the Lord's crucifixion and resurrection, perhaps the most memorable and glorious event in the entire bible is is ascencion which followed the giving forth of The Great commission. The passage which discusses this deeply moving and beautiful event can be found at Matthew 28:16-19. The verse reads, "16Then the eleven disciples went to Galilee, to the mountain where Jesus had told them to go. 17When they saw him, they worshipped him; but some doubted. 18Then Jesus came to them and said, "All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. 19Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, 20and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age.”]
 * At Jesus’ Giving of the Great Commission and His Ascension into Heaven

It is important to note that Jesus Christ did and said so much more than we read about in the Bible. John explains how His deeds were so numerous that they could not be contained in one book.

After the Resurrection: The Early Church
After our Savior ascended back into heaven, His Apostles and disciples knew it was now up to them to continue Christ’s work of building His Church here on earth. They remained steadfast in prayer, and were in joyful anticipation of the promised One, the Holy Spirit. In this way, they would be able to carry out the Lord's command.

They also knew that their original membership number [eleven] had to become a complete “twelve” again. Someone had to, therefore, replace Judas Iscariot. This activity was supervised by the Apostle Peter. After this important task was completed, the Apostles begain waiting for the promise that the Lord would be sending them from heaven.

After the Holy Spirit descended upon the apostles at Pentecost, their mission to spread the word began. Peter, inspired by the Holy Spirit, gave the first in-gathering speech, and 3,000 converts were added to the church that same day.

As the Apostles worked zealously to carry out The Great Commission to heal the sick, the cripple and the blind, and to deliver people from demonic possession, problems arose concerning circumcision, which foods to eat, and how to distribute food to the widows. The Apostle Peter, in collaboration with the others, directed the handling of these important matters.

When it came time for the Gospel to be spread to the Gentiles, Peter sent the Apostles to distant lands so that this good news of God's Kingdom could reach people of all nations, Jews and Gentile alike.

Peter Supervises the Task of Adding Matthias to the Ministry
The biblical account in Acts chapter 1 reads, “12Then they returned to Jerusalem from the hill called the Mount of Olives, a Sabbath day's walk from the city. 13When they arrived, they went upstairs to the room where they were staying. Those present were Peter, John, James and Andrew; Philip and Thomas, Bartholomew and Matthew; James son of Alphaeus and Simon the Zealot, and Judas son of James. 14They all joined together constantly in prayer, along with the women and Mary the mother of Jesus, and with his brothers. 15In those days Peter stood up among the believers (a group numbering about a hundred and twenty) 16and said, "Brothers, the Scripture had to be fulfilled which the Holy Spirit spoke long ago through the mouth of David concerning Judas, who served as guide for those who arrested Jesus— 17he was one of our number and shared in this ministry." 18(With the reward he got for his wickedness, Judas bought a field; there he fell headlong, his body burst open and all his intestines spilled out. 19Everyone in Jerusalem heard about this, so they called that field in their language Akeldama, that is, Field of Blood.) 20"For," said Peter, "it is written in the book of Psalms, 	  " 'May his place be deserted; let there be no one to dwell in it,' and, " 'May another take his place of leadership.' 21Therefore it is necessary to choose one of the men who have been with us the whole time the Lord Jesus went in and out among us, 22beginning from John's baptism to the time when Jesus was taken up from us. For one of these must become a witness with us of his resurrection." 23So they proposed two men: Joseph called Barsabbas (also known as Justus) and Matthias. 24Then they prayed, "Lord, you know everyone's heart. Show us which of these two you have chosen 25to take over this apostolic ministry, which Judas left to go where he belongs." 26Then they cast lots, and the lot fell to Matthias; so he was added to the eleven apostles

Martyrdom
The Acts of Peter record a legend in which Peter flees Rome when Nero began his persecution in AD 64. The legend says that Jesus appeared to him and asked him where he was going, Peter needed no more words and immediately turned around and headed back to the city (Grant 152). However there is an earlier, and far more respected text which may shed light on Peter's martyrdom; that text is the First Epistle of Clement (Cullmann). The epistle is commonly held to have been composed during AD 96 (Cullmann). The information on Peter is found in a section of the letter where Clement is making an argument that is vaguely reminiscent of Hebrews 12 and 13 where the author of that letter speaks of attested exemplars. In this section Peter is listed as one who bore many torments and afterwards went to a "place of glory" (1 Clem. 5.4-5). Nevertheless this text does not give a particular location for Peter's death. It is an unsatisfactory response to say that the place could not have been Rome because Clement knew nothing of Peter's martyrdom except what he mentioned. It is much more likely that Clement assumed "that it [the place of Peter's death] was known; moreover, he is not giving a report about martyrs but an example of the results of envy and strife" (Cullmann). "Constantine the Great was so convinced of the fact" (Grant) that Peter had died and been buried in Rome that he built St. Peter's Basilica over the site where tradition held Peter had been buried in the early 4th century. There had, apparently, been a shrine where the basilica was built since the late second century (Grant).

If it can be safely assumed that Peter died in Rome circa AD 65 (Reicke) than the final question that must be answered is the means of his death. Tradition has long held that Peter was crucified, like Jesus himself. One scholar has said, "those who mention the manner of his death are unanimous are this point" (Thiede). Those who look for Canonical evidence sometimes point to the Gospel of John when it says, "'Truly, truly, I say to you, when you were young, you used to dress yourself and walk wherever you wanted, but when you are old, you will stretch out your hands, and another will dress you and carry you where you do not want to go.' (This he said to show by what kind of death he was to glorify God.) " (John 21.18-19a) as proof that Peter would die by crucification. The Acts of Peter tells the story of his martyrdom and adds that he refused to be crucified right-side up, but demanded to be crucified upside down so as not to compete with Jesus. Although this tradition does come from the Acts of Peter it should not be immediately dismissed since it is mentioned by Origen and may have been "in line with the desire for novelty among the Roman henchmen" (Thiede). The vast majority of literary sources point to Peter having been martyred in Rome at some point during the reign of Emperor Nero (Cullmann). However, even with this evidence the means of Peter's death cannot be confirmed unequivocally (Grant).

Conclusions
Peter's life has been examined, from his humble beginnings in a back water province of the Roman Empire, to his meeting with the Son of the Living God, to his death, presumably, in the capital of the greatest of the ancient empires. Throughout his life Peter proved to be a man of faith; he stepped out on a wind-tossed sea to be with his Lord. He was often quick to act and slow to think in his early years, showing him to be a man of action. He had no qualms about cutting off the ear of someone who came to take his Lord away from him. Yet, many years later, it can be seen that Peter had matured a great deal and that, although he remained a man of both faith and action, he had brought these into at least some type of balance. Perhaps it is this human struggle and maturity, this humanity, that makes Peter one of the most interesting Biblical characters to study.